Feasibility for Reaching a Internet Zero Financial system for the U.S. by 2050

March 5, 2023

1

I think about that I’ve been appointed the primary CEO of a brand new company arrange by the Federal Authorities of the USA of America with the express aim of truly delivering a Internet Zero CO2 Emissions Financial system by 2050. My first activity is to scope the challenge and to estimate the belongings required to succeed. That is the results of that train, and features a dialogue of some penalties that circulation from the dimensions and timescale for assembly the goal.

Govt abstract

The price to 2050 will comfortably exceed $12T (trillion) for electrification tasks and $35T for bettering the power effectivity of buildings, a work-force comparable in measurement to the well being sector shall be required for 30 years, together with a doubling of the current variety of electrical engineers, and the invoice of specialist supplies is of a measurement that for the USA alone is a number of instances the worldwide annual manufacturing of many key minerals. On the manpower entrance one should depend on the home workforce, as all over the place else on the earth is working in the direction of the identical goal. In the event that they weren’t so working, the worth of the USA-specific goal is moot. The size of this challenge suggests {that a} struggle footing and a command economic system shall be important, as main cuts to different favoured types of expenditure, reminiscent of well being, training and defence, shall be wanted. And not using a detailed roadmap, as exemplified by the Worldwide Know-how Roadmap for Semiconductors that drove the electronics revolution after 1980, the goal is just unattainable.

INTRODUCTION

Think about we’ve a net-zero emissions economic system within the USA by 2050. Three very giant, interrelated, and multidisciplinary engineering tasks may have been accomplished:

Transport may have been electrified.
Industrial and home warmth may have been electrified.
The electrical energy sector – era, transmission and distribution – may have been enormously expanded so as to deal with the primary two tasks.

A fourth challenge is to safe the buy-in of the general public for what shall be 30 years of social disruption, diminished dwelling requirements, and dwelling beneath a command economic system. The profitable completion of those tasks is important to satisfy the high-level goal, however they don’t seem to be ample, as I’ve not dealt explicitly with agriculture and different issues as described under

Present USA power consumption

The information in Determine 1 give a sign of the power used over the months from January 2019 to October 2021 for transport, all warmth and electrical energy (in whole and the fossil gas contribution within the USA. I’ve derived this diagram from the US Power Data Company knowledge[i].

All year long, using transport gas is roughly fixed, whereas heating power is 75% greater in winter than summer time, and far of the bottom load warmth is of commercial origin. Electrical energy use peaks in summer time prompted by way of air-conditioners for cooling and has a subsidiary peak in winter from heating.

In changing transport power and warmth – at present principally derived from fossil fuels – to electrical energy, we’ll use at present’s knowledge, assuming that the expansion in demand from inhabitants development shall be offset by power effectivity financial savings, each at about 10% over the subsequent 30 years. This approximation must be revisited in a extra detailed evaluation than is given right here. Word that about 60% of electrical energy is supplied by fossil fuels and that needs to be sourced from renewables and nuclear power.

Determine 1: USA Knowledge on month-to-month power consumption for electrical energy era, floor transportation and all warmth supplied by fossil fuels and that proportion of electrical energy generated by fossil fuels. The common month-to-month values are 3044 (electrical energy), 2216 (transport), 2508 (fossil gas derived warmth) and 1781 (fossil gas derived electrical energy) all in models of Tera-British-Thermal-units.

DECARBONISING THE ECONOMY

Transport

Transport power is 75% of the worth of the common of electrical energy and peaks in summer time. It’s almost all supplied by fossil fuels at the moment. As a result of an inside combustion engine converts the power saved in its gas into transport movement with an effectivity of about 30%, whereas electrical motors are over 90% environment friendly at utilizing power saved in a battery, we might want to improve the electrical energy provide by about 25% to keep up transport within the USA at at present’s stage in 2050.

A small a part of this transport power is used for aviation and transport, the electrification of which is way much less superior than the electrification of floor transport, and can, ultimately, be dearer per journey than implied utilizing aviation gas and bunker oil at present. The additional price of options to those fuels isn’t examined right here intimately, and this omission permits us to insist that the estimates under are a decrease certain on the entire price of delivering Internet Zero. The extra electrical energy infrastructure required is taken into account within the third engineering challenge.

Warmth

We word from Determine 1 that in summer time, the USA makes use of 75% extra power as warmth than as electrical energy. If this warmth was supplied by radiant heaters, we would wish an additional grid equal to the scale of at present’s simply to maintain houses and companies heat. If we use air-source and ground-source warmth pumps, with a coefficient of efficiency of three:1 – barely optimistic given the common high quality of the thermal envelope of most buildings is excessive (given the necessity to hold warmth out in summer time and/or warmth in in winter), then the additional grid would wish solely to be 35% the scale of the current grid, for the warmth component alone. Combining this consequence with the figures for transport within the final part, the grid in 2050 will prime facie must be greater than 60% larger than its current measurement. We return to this later. Nonetheless, it might be attainable to cut back the quantity of electrical energy required by additional insulating buildings.

The US constructing inventory is made up of 140M housing models, 6.9M industrial buildings and 1.3 industrial buildings, with an estimated flooring area of 256B, 97B, and 14B sqft respectively[ii]. The present thermal envelope varies strongly by geographic area, and a nationwide retrofit train must be delegated to states to manage inside variation. Such a programme might scale back the quantity of inexperienced electrical energy wanted, however for this train solely a gross approximation of the challenge to convey all buildings to have the best attainable thermal envelope is feasible. For instance, the fee within the UK could be estimated with affordable accuracy as there was a pilot retrofit programme from which the nationwide scale price is $1T per 15M inhabitants[iii], which might price the US about $22T. Utilizing impartial, however equal USA knowledge on deep retrofitting, scaled as much as 100% emissions reductions, involves $20T, a remarkably constant worth[iv]. Given the extent to which chilly climate climates are already nicely insulated, this price might nicely halve, however we might want to add the development of insulation in hotter areas to cut back using air-conditioning, and this can take the fee again up once more. Additionally US homes are twice the scale of UK homes on common which can take the prices greater to of order $35T. It’s a matter of urgency that this estimate be refined primarily based on precise US knowledge on retrofitting of a consultant pattern of US homes and different buildings.

Industrial warmth for the manufacture of metal, cement and different supplies has been included above. Electrical arc furnaces will accomplish among the job of decarbonisation, however the highest temperatures nonetheless require fossil fuels. This latter implies additional prices for reaching net-zero which can want additional consideration later.

Electrical energy infrastructure

The grid must be 60% greater in 2050 than it’s at present if the USA economic system as we all know it now’s to proceed to operate. Clearly, 30 years can be sufficient time to drive different modifications within the economic system which will scale back, or, certainly, add to this 1.6 issue.

Taken collectively, the USA grid has been referred to as the most important machine on the earth, 200,000 miles of high-voltage transmission strains and 5.5 million miles of native distribution strains. Assuming a scaled-up grid to treble its measurement, we might want to add an additional 120,000 miles of transmission line. This final will price of order $0.6T primarily based on US knowledge on transmission line prices[v].

The 5.5M miles of native distribution strains should be upgraded to hold a lot greater currents. Most homes within the USA have a principal circuit breaker panel that enables between 100A and 200A present into the home, though some new ones are rated at 300A. The 100A commonplace was set almost a century in the past when the electrical kettle was the most important single equipment drawing 13A. In a contemporary all-electric residence, among the new home equipment usually draw relatively greater currents, reminiscent of: ground-source warmth pumps might draw 85A on start-up, radiant hobs when beginning up draw 37A, quick chargers for electrical autos draw 46A, and even gradual ones might draw 17A, whereas electrical showers draw 46A. The native wiring in streets and native transformers had been all sized to the 100A restrict. Most houses will want an upgraded circuit breaker panel and far native wiring and native substations will want upsizing. The UK prices[vi] have been estimated in particulars at £1T, which might scale to of order $6T on a per capita foundation.

The brand new era of electrical energy should embody decarbonising the 60% of the present grid that’s fossil fuelled as of now. Which means that we want 400% of the present non-fossil-fuel grid capability to be supplied by new non-fossil gas sources. There’s restricted capability for brand spanking new hydroelectricity and the economics of carbon seize and sequestration is unproven. From Determine 1, we may have to have the ability to ship the height electrical energy even at instances in winter when native manufacturing within the north of each wind and photo voltaic electrical energy is low. Utilizing a mix are[vii] of wind (onshore $1600/kW, offshore $6500/kW), photo voltaic $1000/kW on the utility stage), nuclear ($6000/kW), the capital price of the brand new capability alone is of order $5T. Word: there isn’t any provision right here for storage of electrical energy on the state stage for 3-6 months which might be required. Storage shall be mentioned additional under.

We’ve recognized $12T as the price of offering the era, transmission and distribution of electrical energy in a net-zero world. Though not all borne by households, the fee is of order $100,000 per family, plus the battery prices (which might dwarf this sum. The present hydropower storage would run the USA for a number of hours and all battery storage for a couple of minutes.

Human sources

We now contemplate the human useful resource necessities to ship the goal economic system. Atkins (A UK engineering agency, personal communication) estimate {that a} $1 billion challenge within the electrical sector implies about 800 years {of professional} engineering time and someplace between 2000 and 3000 years of the time of expert tradespeople. This quantities to 24 or extra engineers and 100 or extra expert tradespeople, employed fulltime for 30 years. Scaling up these figures up for the $12T electrical energy sector tasks simply described, we’ll want 500,000 skilled electrical engineers and of order 0.8M expert folks employed full-time for the 30 years to 2050 on simply this side of the net-zero challenge. There are of order 400,000 licenced engineers at current, so we might want to greater than double that quantity to accommodate these tasks. Coaching this many engineers will take time and can subsequently hamper progress within the coming decade throughout a build-up section, which means much more shall be wanted afterward.

Within the constructing retrofit sector, a variety of abilities – from semi-skilled to extremely expert – is required. Primarily based on the finances, we would count on retrofit sector to wish an analogous workforce, of order 3M folks, to ship every little thing from the design of particular person tasks, via the supplies provide chain, to the precise retrofitting work. Clearly these are each main perturbations to the nationwide workforce. There are not any prior examples of expert employees being generated and maintained on such a scale over 30 years.

Invoice of supplies

The precise prices of the supplies required are coated above. Right here we contemplate the portions required. The transition from fossil fuels to renewables is a transfer from a fuel-intensive power sector to a materials-intensive power sector. There’s already appreciable standard concern in regards to the position of mining in lowering biodiversity, however this drawback is about to get a lot worse.

For instance, a 600-MW combined-cycle fuel turbine (CCGT) contains 300 tonnes of high-performance steels. We would wish 360 5-MW wind generators, every operating at a imply 33% effectivity, and a serious storage facility alongside to attain the identical steady 600-MW provide. Actually, because the lifetime of wind generators at 25 years is lower than half that of CCGT generators with a single life-extension refit, we’d really want 720 of them.

The mass of the nacelle (the turbine on the prime of the tower) for a 5-MW wind turbine is comparable[viii] to that of a CCGT. Moreover, the mass of concrete within the plinth of a single CCGT is corresponding to the mass of concrete for the foundations of every onshore wind turbine and far smaller than the concrete and ballast for every offshore turbine. A corollary of the multiplicity of generators or photo voltaic panels is that connecting them to the grid is extra supplies intensive.

A 1.8-GW nuclear energy plant and turbine produce about 1000 W/kg of metal within the mixed unit, in contrast with round 2000 W/kg for a CCGT and a pair of–3 W/kg from photo voltaic panels or wind generators. These components, of order 1000, present that using high-value supplies (steels, silicon and long-life polymers for wind turbine blades) is way more intensive in renewables. This impact is offset considerably by their fuel-free operation. Nonetheless, the extraction of oil and fuel solely has a small impression on the earth’s floor in contrast with the opencast mining of the minerals utilized by wind generators and photo voltaic farms.

If Eire had been to transform in a single day to an electrical automobile fleet, the supplies necessities for the batteries alone, in contrast with annual manufacturing at present are estimated, by scaling UK estimate by the inhabitants ratio, as[ix]

1M tonnes of cobalt – virtually 20 instances the annual world manufacturing
1.3M tonnes of lithium carbonate (LCE) – over 7 instances the annual world manufacturing
at the least 36K tonnes of neodymium and dysprosium – almost 5 instances the annual world manufacturing of neodymium
10M tonnes of copper – almost the annual world manufacturing in 2018

If the world is to go all-electric in 30 years, we have to convert the USA in 1.6 years, and therefore we see the necessity for a really steep rise within the mining of those supplies. Unregulated and baby labour is implicated in a lot mining of cobalt, so there are intense analysis efforts to switch it with out shedding an excessive amount of battery effectivity. Biodiversity shall be beneath even nice risk from elevated mining.

Power storage

Fossil fuels are way more efficient at storing power than any recognized non-nuclear options (Desk 1).[x]

One instance was prompted by a member of Extinction Riot, who assured me that the back-up electrical energy provide for emergency wards in hospitals could be supplied by batteries by 2025. The 100-MW, 128-MWh battery put in by Elon Musk close to Adelaide in 2018, at a value of $100 million, would energy the emergency wards – 30% of the entire – of Mt Sinai Hospital in New York for twenty-four hours on a single 80–20% discharge. If a storm took out the transmission strains within the New York for every week, we would wish seven such batteries. The again up at present is usually supplied by diesel turbines, which run for so long as there’s gas costing about $0.5M. This implies there’s a capital price ratio of 200:1 per day or 1400:1 per week for battery versus diesel. This financial mismatch applies to all different advised functions of batteries, for instance defending Wall St in opposition to blackouts.

There is no such thing as a short-term probability of low-cost large-scale electrical energy storage. Even hydrogen could be very costly, and the gas wanted to make the hydrogen could be way more successfully used to carry out the features straight that the hydrogen could be scheduled to do.

The worldwide context of USA actions

One can see in Determine 3 the dominant position that fossil fuels have had in energising the world economic system because the nineteenth century. All of the efforts on renewables have thus far contributed solely a slight divergence and fall within the fossil gas fraction since 1980 – this has been of order 85% for a century, however has fallen to nearer 82% now. An extrapolation out to 2050 signifies a 79% contribution in 2050: there isn’t any signal of a speedy divergence and a zeroing of the fossil gas fraction within the subsequent 30 years. These and lots of different developments, such because the quadrupling of the SUV world market within the final decade, all present the world shifting away from the net-zero goal.

I’ve made no allowances for radical technological breakthroughs within the power sector, which could relieve the scenario on the timescale of a long time. Equally, nevertheless, incremental developments, reminiscent of these seen in battery know-how, could be slower than anticipated, because the intrinsic limits of supplies properties are approached. Any such delays would worsen the scenario.

Public acceptance

The fourth challenge listed on the outset will be the hardest. It’s clear from the general public debate that the citizenry has no concept of the dimensions of the duty of a transition to a net-zero emissions economic system in 30 years. This isn’t solely a matter of the prices, human sources and supplies, but in addition the disturbance to on a regular basis life because the goal is approached. Opinion polls point out that few are prepared, not to mention in a position, to pay greater than very modest sums, and positively nothing like that implied by the determine of nicely over $300,000 per family set out above (for electrical and retrofit actions). Worse, there shall be no measurable distinction sooner or later local weather on account of all of the spending and hardship within the UK. To make a distinction we would wish the remainder of the world, and particularly the creating world, to come back on board. Poorer nations, reminiscent of India and the nations of South Asia, the Center East and Africa, would wish monetary assist to take action. If we assume that Europe and North America are to underwrite the remainder of the world’s net-zero actions, then the prices to the UK might rise by an element of 4.5, assuming the identical per capita spend globally. The ensuing price of attending to the worldwide goal then rises to just about $1.5M per family, and $200T for the entire of the USA, which is a fantasy in sensible phrases.

By all generally understood value-for-money measures, local weather mitigation workouts merely don’t add up. For houses, the $300,000 per family could be recouped virtually 100 years (at at present’s price of power), far longer than any smart investor would tolerate. Certainly, we’d require a command economic system in the course of the interval to 2050 to safe the finance, expert workforce, and the supplies wanted to achieve the goal. Additional, from the place we’re at present, it isn’t clear how this public acceptance could be achieved on the timescale required.

Funding for adaptation to an precise altering local weather is a better ask. Utilizing the Thames Barrier in London for example, intensive flooding within the 1953 storms within the East of England triggered the commissioning of assorted actuarial calculations. When ought to a Thames Barrier be constructed such that over its lifetime the worth of flood insurance coverage claims averted was equal to the price of the barrier itself? The reply was ‘within the Eighties‘. In developed nations with seismic exercise, it’s simple to put aside and make investments a number of billions of kilos to cowl future earthquakes, however that’s as a result of most individuals know they might be claimants throughout their lifetimes. For the slow-burning problem of local weather change, nevertheless, this isn’t attainable. As a substitute, using applicable actuarial calculations might enable funding in adaptation to be attracted as and when essential.

Spend profile and secured finance

Many of the previous evaluation assumes a relentless 30-year challenge. In follow, nevertheless, the spend will begin from close to zero and ramp up. If a 40-year retrofit roll out had began in 2010, one would by now have spent of order 15–20% of the entire bettering housing and different buildings. In follow the spent was of order 1%. Every year of delay provides extra to what have to be achieved within the coming a long time, requiring even larger flows of finance, human sources and supplies. The coaching of a talented workforce and build up the availability chain should precede mass roll-out in all sectors. The growth of the grid should precede the mass uptake of electrical heating and transport: having the automobiles and heat-pumps with out the inexperienced electrical energy is the peak of folly.

A challenge on this scale will want bespoke financing on the nationwide stage, as it’s past the scope even of the richest firms on the earth at present. Even worldwide cash markets would wrestle if all of the world pursued internet zero. Utterly new financial considering could be wanted, and the Stern Report of 2006 is manner out of its depth on this sensible level.

A partial listing of things not but thought of

I’ve given no consideration to agriculture, and particularly methane emissions, nor forestry, which allows damaging emissions whereas bushes are rising. I’ve not thought of aviation or transport and particular prices there. Aviation gas shall be with us via and past 2050, and evolution of electrical transport could be very gradual past commuter ferries in giant metropolis harbours. The worldwide economic system relies upon very a lot on each these types of transport, and any extreme curtailment shall be accompanied by falling requirements of dwelling of the center class. I’ve not thought of industrial warmth at present supplied by fossil fuels for which electrical heating doesn’t obtain excessive sufficient temperatures in some refining processes.

I’ve not included the additional prices of concurrently operating the 2 new infrastructure methods required to assist fuelling inside combustion engines and recharging electrical motor batteries. I’ve not thought of the sensible decisions related to the place and the way the additional electrical energy era ought to happen, nor have I factored within the prices of any types of electrical energy storage (that are very excessive, as seen earlier). These points will want an early decision, as a result of most of the desired outcomes rely on the brand new infrastructure being in place. I’ve not examined the ever-growing prices of balancing the grid, prices which develop dramatically as extra intermittent sources of electrical energy are used.

A significant change in peoples’ life, with reductions in journey, consumption, and meals selection might make a dent within the numbers above, however not scale back a lot the dimensions of the engineering tasks.

A roadmap for Internet Zero

The success of the IT revolution during the last 40 years is in no small half as a result of existence of the Worldwide Know-how Street Map for Semiconductors (ITRS). Consultant engineers from each a part of the sector, and all components of the world, have gathered each two years to thrash out in nice element what wants to come back out of the laboratory into growth, and out of growth into manufacturing, to maintain Moore’s legislation of transistor miniaturisation on observe, and with it the rise in computing energy. Each participant within the subject is aware of that the opposite gamers are investing and dealing day-by-day to the identical agreed goal.

Word the distinction between ITRS and worldwide local weather conferences. Assembly the 2050 net-zero emissions goal is way more advanced than semiconductor growth and might subsequently go fallacious in lots of extra methods. Regardless of this, it’s being tried with none form of roadmap. The challenge is subsequently extra doubtless than to not veer within the course of the historic Tower of Babel. No engineer would make investments time or cash in such a challenge. Traders ought to count on higher given the dimensions of the enterprise.

SUMMARY

With additional prices comfortably in extra of $35T billion, a devoted and expert workforce corresponding to of that of the training sector, and key strategic supplies demanded at many instances the availability charges that prevail at present, and all for no measurable attributable change within the world local weather, the mitigation of local weather change through a net-zero emissions USA economic system in 2050 is a particularly tough ask. And not using a command economic system, the goal will definitely not be met.

The sensible various

Many on the earth are satisfied that we face a local weather disaster within the coming a long time if this goal economic system isn’t delivered. I counsel we’re sure to have an financial and societal disaster if we persist on the tasks to ship the net-zero economic system by 2050. There’s a get-out-of-gaol card, and that’s the demographic transition, which began 70 years in the past. The common household measurement on the earth has halved, from 5 youngsters in 1960 to 2.5 youngsters now, and is continuous to fall. In developed nations, with common main training and extra folks dwelling in cities than the countryside, the determine is under 2, and indigenous populations are in absolute decline, because it takes 2.1 youngsters per household to keep up a inhabitants. Steady creating nations, reminiscent of Bangladesh and Lesotho, are already right down to 2.5. The Chinese language inhabitants will peak within the 2030s and the world inhabitants within the 2060s. A century from now, once we want copper, we is not going to mine it, however strip it from deserted cities.

My evaluation requires the local weather change neighborhood to return, in all humility, and ask themselves actually how dangerous will (versus may) the world’s local weather develop into? The proposed answer appears far worse for society than the issue. Half of their analyses of the long run local weather are primarily based on a CO2 emissions state of affairs (RCP8.5) now debunked as excessively excessive relatively then the extra doubtless RCP2.5 state of affairs. Their candour at this level would help these making the case for funding local weather adaptation, which can solely be carried out when it turns into essential. Within the parlance of the Second World Struggle, ‘Is that this journey actually essential?’

Private view

I hope this report provides the naked details about what’s implied by committing to a net-zero emissions economic system for 2050. Wanting a command economic system, it’s merely an unattainable pipe dream, and we’ll wrestle to get 10–20% of the best way to the goal, even with a democratic mandate to proceed. I believe that the arduous details ought to put a cease to pressing mitigation and result in a deal with adaptation. Mankind has tailored to the local weather over current millennia, and is best geared up than ever to adapt within the coming a long time. With respect to sea-level-rise, the Dutch have been displaying us the best way for hundreds of years. Local weather adaptation within the right here and now’s a a lot simpler promote to the USA citizenry than mitigation. There’s a very robust case to repeal the net-zero emissions laws and change it with a relatively longer time horizon. The continued strain in the direction of a net-zero economic system will develop into against the law of sedition if the general public stand up violently to reject it. The silence of the Nationwide Academies and the skilled science and engineering our bodies about these massive image engineering realities is a matter of complicity.

Footnotes

[i] Knowledge from the Power Data Company of the USA, with because of a number of members who checked my interpretation of their knowledge to derive Determine 1: all of the implications from are by me they usually bear no accountability. Complete Power Month-to-month Knowledge – U.S. Power Data Administration (EIA)

[ii] • Variety of houses in U.S. 1975-2020 | Statista 140M models

www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/element.php?id=46118 industrial constructing 5.9M with 97B sq ft floorspace

United States Industrial Properties | Reonomy 1.3M industrial buildings: 3.472M sqft manufacturing and 10264M sqft warehouse and distribution.

[iii] In 2009, as Chief Scientific Advisor to the then Division for Communities and Native Authorities, I briefed Lord Drayson, the then Science Minister, in regards to the problem of retrofitting all present buildings to cut back the power consumption and therefore emissions of carbon dioxide. I advised an in depth pilot programme be put in practice. This turned a £17 million expenditure programme referred to as 3 ‘Retrofit for the Future’, a sequence of tasks wherein over 100 social homes (i.e. smaller than the common) had been topic to varied measures. One group of 45 homes obtained full makeovers – double and treble glazing, exterior cladding, additional loft and underfloor insulation, and new energy-efficient home equipment. Detailed research of emissions earlier than and after for this group confirmed that for a median expenditure of £85,000, the common emissions discount achieved was 60%, with solely three dwellings reaching the 80% emissions discount goal, and one other three not even reaching 30%. Linearly scaling the consequence to the entire housing inventory and a 100% emissions discount, produces a value estimate of £4 trillion. See the outcomes at: Rajat Gupta, Matt Gregg, Stephen Passmore and Geoffrey Stevens. ‘Intent and outcomes from the Retrofit for the Future programme: key classes’, Constructing Analysis & Data, 43(4); 435–451, 2015. See https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09613218.2015.1024042

[iv] Report: Deep Retrofits Can Halve Properties’ Power Use and Emissions | ACEEE

[v] MISO USA: £1.6 million/km for 132kV, £2.0 million/km for 275kV and £3.3 million/km for 400kV line https://nocapx2020.data/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Transmission-Value-Estimation-Information-for-MTEP-2019337433.pdf

[vi] The Hidden Value of Internet Zero: Rewiring the UK (thegwpf.org)

[vii] Value of electrical energy by supply (per Wikipedia):